Re-examining Dizon’s “Iron Age” and Early Philippine Metal Production: Review of Metal Production and Use Evidence from Precolonial and Early Colonial in the Philippines (500 BC–1600 AD)

Francis N. Claravall1*, Patricia Panganiban1, Rachelle Anne Geline Ureta2, Helen Lewis3, Thomas Olivier Pryce4, Bobby Orillaneda2, Marc F. Oxenham5, Armand Mijares1, Victor J. Paz1†, and Hermine Xhauflair6

Building upon Dr Dizon’s seminal dissertation in 1988 regarding the origins of metal use and production in the Philippines that proposed three hypotheses for metal/ore sourcing, examining whether finished metal products, raw materials, or ores were externally or locally acquired outside the Philippines, this research honours Dr Dizon’s rigorous scholarly approach by synthesising archaeological evidence recovered from Philippine terrestrial and maritime archaeological sites and early accounts to examine the emergence of metallurgy from 500 BC to 1600 AD. Using a chaîne opératoire framework of metalworking, it evaluates the presence of metal production stages, use and discard across key archaeological sites and collections. While Philippine geological data shows the possibility of early local extraction, the synthesis of this research reveals evolving trends within the Philippine archipelago: opportunistic acquisition and basic production in the Metal Age, appearance of specialised craft centres in the Protohistoric Period, and resilient local practices persisting into the Early Historic era, despite Spanish rule. This research also highlights the present gaps in the study of early metal production and use in the Philippines and re-evaluates of past metal collections, proposing future directions that include further archaeometallurgical studies, sourcing studies, and surveying for early settlement areas. By doing so, future research can reframe early Philippine metallurgy and metal use as a locally driven technology with an adaptive technological usage that shaped its archipelagic environment, and maritime connections that connected maritime networks, rather than a being seen simply as a product of diffusion or overly reliant on trade.