Perfume Trade and Secrecies: Participation of Gandhika/ Gandhavanikas in Perfume Trade across the Indian Ocean in the Ancient World

Madhulika Samanta

Ancient trading networks across the Indian Ocean facilitated the circulation of commodities, knowledge systems, and cultural practices among diverse societies. These maritime exchanges connected different landscapes, populations, and belief systems through the movement of goods and specialised skills. Among these commodities, perfumes and aromatic substances played an important role in linking communities across the Indian Ocean rim. Recent biomolecular research has confirmed the long-distance circulation of aromatic materials within this network. For example, Indonesian dammar and elemi resins have been identified in ancient Egyptian contexts (Rageot et al. 2023), while remains of Santalum sp. have been reported from the archaeological site of Sangankallu in Karnataka (Fuller et al. 2011). Literary and epigraphic sources—including inscriptions, donation records, and religious texts such as the Jatakas—also indicate a flourishing trade in perfumes and aromatics connecting South Asia with Southeast Asia, West Asia, and Africa. Despite these references, archaeological evidence of perfume-related materials from the Indian context remains limited. This gap may partly result from methodological constraints in excavation practices, the perishable nature of aromatic substances and their containers, and the specialised and often guarded knowledge systems associated with their production. Early literary sources attest to the presence of Gandhikas or Gandhavanikas—perfumers and traders in aromatic substances. While this occupational identity gradually merged with broader mercantile groups across much of South Asia, a distinct Gandhavanika identity persists in eastern India. This paper examines the role of Gandhikas and Gandhavanikas within the Indian Ocean perfume trade through a critical analysis of epigraphic, ethnographic, and archaeological evidence, while also exploring the specialised knowledge and secrecy historically associated with this profession.