Early Iron Working in Bihar: Transitioning from the NBPW Level to the Early Medieval

Oishi Roy

Excavations in eastern India since the 1960s have yielded iron artefacts that attest to the presence of iron technology from the Ferro-Chalcolithic level onward. Against this backdrop, the present study examines the iron assemblages from Telhara (Nalanda District), a multi-cultural site with occupation spanning from the Chalcolithic period to the present, and Lalipahadi (Lakhisarai District), a uni-cultural Early Medieval site. A close technological and typological examination of the artefacts provides insight into the technical knowledge and production strategies prevalent in this region across time. Typological analysis reveals a measurable degree of standardisation based on functional categories. Wet chemical analysis contributes to understanding the chemical composition of the ores utilised, while microstructural examination offers detailed insight into forging techniques, heat treatment practices, and levels of metallurgical control. Comparative analysis between the assemblages from these sites enables an assessment of whether production was organised under a centralised administrative framework or operated through dispersed production units, and further aids in identifying possible loci of manufacture. To contextualise archaeological findings, experimental archaeology was undertaken at multiple localities with practicing blacksmiths working in varied socio-economic contexts. The experimental programme extended beyond smithing to include smelting practices, with ethnographic documentation of the Agaria, an indigenous iron-smelting community. These experimental investigations provide a holistic understanding of the chaîne opératoire—from ore procurement and processing to forging and finishing. By integrating archaeological data, scientific analysis, and experimental reconstruction, this study offers a comprehensive interpretation of iron production and technological continuity in Bihar from the NBPW phase to the Early Medieval period.