Spice Routes in the Indian Ocean: Archaeobotanical Evidence

Satish Shivaji Naik

The Indian Ocean functioned as a major maritime corridor connecting South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Near East, and East Africa through the exchange of commodities, cultures, and technologies. Spices were among the most significant trade items due to their culinary, medicinal, and ritual value. Although early literary sources such as the Yajurveda, the Brahmanas, and Divyavadana (ca. 200 CE) mention their importance, archaeobotanical evidence provides more direct insight into the antiquity and movement of spice products within the Indian Ocean trade networks. The present study examines archaeobotanical remains of spice-yielding plants recovered from several archaeological sites across the Indian subcontinent and adjoining regions connected to Indian Ocean trade. These include the Iron Age site of Khairadih (6th–2nd c. BCE) in Uttar Pradesh; the Early Historic site of Sanghol (1st – 3rd c. CE) in Punjab; the port settlements of Chaul (1st c. BCE - 17th c. CE) and Mandad (1st c. BCE - 2nd c. CE) in Maharashtra; and Pattanam (1st c. BCE - 17th c. CE) in Kerala. Comparative evidence is also drawn from Red Sea port sites in Egypt, including the Roman levels at Quseir al-Qadim (c. 1st - 3rd CE) and Berenike (1st - 2nd c. CE and 4th - 6th c. CE), as well as the Islamic phases at Quseir al-Qadim (11th - 15th c. CE). Archaeobotanical remains such as charred seeds and fruits indicate the use and circulation of spices including black pepper (Piper nigrum), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), turmeric (Curcuma longa), ginger (Zingiber officinale), and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans). These finds highlight the role of maritime trade networks and the importance of archaeobotanical evidence in reconstructing ancient spice trade in the Indian Ocean world.